Type of paper: Research paper
Citation style: MLA
Pages: 6
Sources: 10
Level: Undergraduate
The year 1877 is considered one of the momentous years in the course of the American history. The year marked significant changes in the political and social trends, particularly after the war. The events that took place prior to this year brought the nation into a compelling transformation known as the “Reconstruction Era.” Details of the events that took place during the year 1877 will be discussed selectively to justify the marking of the year in American history with its significance.
The presidential election that took place in 1876 brought the nation into a confusing result, forcing the Congress to declare dispute with the election result declared. To resolve the issue, the Electoral Commission was constructed. The temporary body created by the Congress was given an obligation to investigate the controversial 1876 US presidential election. During the 1876 presidential election, Rutherford Hayes and Samuel Tilden were in an electoral bout for presidency. The victory of Tilden was assumed since he won 184 electoral votes against Hayes with 165 votes (Hoogenboom 1995). However, the remaining 20 electoral votes were held dispute in four states, being the states of Florida, Louisiana, Oregon and South Carolina. The Congress were forced to create the Electoral Commission as allegations of fraud in the disputed states were surfacing and to address once and for all the constitutional crisis brought by the dispute. The Commission was consisted of fifteen congressmen and Supreme Court justices. The Commission were asked to cast vote for the deserving candidate to win the presidency and it resulted into 8-7 votes with favoring votes for Hayes, declaring him the winner. The 1876 election was regarded historical due to other points it gained throughout the history, including the first case of presidential candidate who won popular votes yet lose the election and where the Democratic party won the popular vote in the last 20 years prior to the election (Dirck 2007). The result does not received well by the Southern Democrats who cried fraudulence over the process conducted by the Commission and threatened rebellion against the administration. To pacify the threats, a certain deal was made about ending the reconstruction era that bothered the nation for a period of time particularly the Southern parties. However, the image of Rutherford was already tainted among them, often referring him as “Rutherfraud” (DeGregorio 1997)
What was referred to as Reconstruction Era in the history of the United States falls into two period. The first period covered the entire events that transpired from 1865 to 1877 that led to Civil War. The second period pertains to the transformation of the Southern United States particularly with the state and society around 1863 to 1877. On the first of January 1963, President Lincoln issued the presidential proclamation of changing the civilian status of the slaves into free citizens. The federal decision created a domino effect from various sectors who were unprepared for such changes, leading to Civil War against the rebels of the executive branch, contesting the order. The order was also known as Emancipation Proclamation where it specifically freed slaves out of the ten states that were under the rebellion. The order freed some 4 million slaves in the American soil at the time (History.com 2015). While Lincoln initiated the order, Radical Republicans did not settle well to his moderate approach of giving privileges for the freed slaves as they have observed that the effect had worsen their status particularly with the treatment of society. Radical Republicans acted harshly by upgrading the rights of the freedmen by setting up a bureau that will take charge with the protection and exercise of the freedman’s legal rights. They were provided with livelihood, schools and churches. Under the administration of President Ulysses Grant, the protection for the African American were highly enforced, particularly suppressing the Klu Klux Klan movement. Prior to these protections, the former slaves experienced another turmoil regarding labor treatment imposed for them under the administration of President Andre Johnson when he passed the “black codes.” The provision had appointed power to the employers over the former slaves and other African Americans to control their behavior and labor practice. The code only lasted a year since critics of Johnson outraged and called for presidential reconstruction instead. This is when the Radical Republicans took over the policy making position and dismissed the participation of Confederates. While the beginning of the Reconstruction Era brought hope to million slaves, it was still considered as failure since the South, where the freedmen where relocated, was stricken with poverty due to scarcity of resources. Aside from this, white Southerners still practice racial discrimination against the freedmen. Several incidents of attempt to dominate the community of former slaves including the formation of Klu Klux Klan that aimed to restore white dominance among the states by enforcing violence and intimidation against them were reported and recorded in the Southern history.
While the Radicals were taking charge with bureaucratic works for the freedmen, the Congress was taking charge to reconstruct the Military system. The passed Reconstruction Act, as authored by Oregon Senator George Williams, defined new military tasks by grouping them into five military districts (Foner 2005). The military districts were Confederate states under the military control. The military districts were the following:
The Reconstruction Era deployed some 20,000 troops, aiming to protect the African Americans' right to vote. Discrimination and oppression against the African Americans were heavy in these states, thus, the need for martial law implementation and suspension to represent in the Congress. The ten Confederate states were only readmitted to represent in the Congress from 1866 to 1870 after successful attempts of driving away Republican officials in the local governments (Smith 2011).
When African Americans became influential in the political scene, few educated African Americans were delegated as officeholders during the 1867 state constitutional conventions. They attained education even prior to Civil War with proper schooling. In Virginia, there were 25 African Americans employed in the office. In North Carolina, there were 13 employed. In South Carolina, there were 76 employed. In Georgia, there were 33 employed. In Florida, there were 18 employed. In Alabama, there were 16 employed. In Mississippi, there were 17 employed. In Louisiana, there were 44 employed. In Texas, there were 9 employed (Hahn 2005). While the number of the African American office employees constituted only a minute percent in the total office employees in the Confederate states, the proposition projected improvement in terms of labor code and African American recognition.
As the Reconstruction Era was coming to an end in 1877, the Nez Perce War was unfolding. This war was participated by some Native American tribes against the United States Army. The conflict between the two parties rooted when Treaty of 1863 was passed, ordering the members of Wallowa Band in Oregon to return to their homeland in the Lake Wallowa (University of Idaho, 2002). The treaty was not received well by the Wallowa band and other non-Christian bands. The conflict created by the treaty resulted to hostile encounters of the participating parties, initially with Nimiipuu and White Bird. The encounter initiated the Nez Perce War.
The term Nez Perce was impressed with meaning as “non-treaty Indians,” forming the Nez Perce Native American tribe including their allies such as Bald Head and Palouse (Josephy 1965). The war lasted for four months from June to October 1877. The tribe had engaged some 2,000 American soldiers during the battle. The fighting skills of the Nez Perce tribe was highly admired by historians since they were able to conduct with discipline despite the battle (Greene & Josephy 2001). The chronological events that transpired during the event were the following:
Bear Paw Battle between September 3 to October 5, 1877: US Army Col. Nelson Miles were able to intercept Nimiipuu near the Canadian border. Seeing the severe suffering of his people, Chief Joseph of Nez Perce surrendered on October 5, 1877. He negotiated an arrangement as an agreement to conclude the three-month battle.
One of the agreements upon the conclusion of the battle was for Howard and Miles to allow Chief Joseph to return his tribe in their homeland in Idaho, however, as compensation to damage of the war they created, they were instead sent to Kansas by the US Army commanding general, William Sherman. Since the agreement did not materialize, some of Nimiipuu survivors escaped to Canada including White Bird. The remaining Nez Perce tribes were relocated to Oklahoma's Indian Country. These tribes were allowed to return to their homeland in Idaho upon receiving baptism to convert into Christianity in 1885. Chief Joseph, who returned to his original religious practice after returning to his homeland, was exiled in Washington and died in 1904 (University of Idaho, 2002).
These three momentous events made the year 1877 a marked period. The year contained transition, reconstruction, and reconciliation in political and social scenes, that eventually lead to various historical events as results of the end of Reconstruction Era and Nez Perce War, along with the constitutional changes that took place after the Electoral Commission's decision regarding presidency.
“Nez Perce Conflict of 1877.” University of Idaho, 2002. Web. 6 Sept. 2015. http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~rfrey/422NPconflict1877.htm
“Reconstruction.” History.com, 2015. Web. 6 Sept. 2015. http://www.history.com/topics/american- civil-war/reconstruction
DeGregorio, William. The Complete Book of US Presidents, 1997. New York: Gramercy. Print.
Dirck, Brian R. The Executive Branch of Federal Government: People, Process and Politics, 2007. California: ABC-CLIO, Inc. Print.
Foner, Eric. Forever Free: The Story of Emancipation and Reconstruction. 2005. Print.
Greene, Jerome A., & Josephy, Alvin M. Nerz Perce Summer, 1877: The US Army and the Nee-Mee- Poo Crisis. Montana Historical Society. Print.
Hahn, Steve. A Nation Under Our Feet. Belknap Press.
Hoogenboom, Ari. Rutherford B. Hayes: Warrior and President, 1995. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. Print.
Josephy, Alvin M. The Nez Perce Indians and the Opening of the Northwest, 1965. New Haven: Yale University Press. Print.
Smith, Nicole. “Overview of the Reconstruction Era in the American History.” Article Myriad, 7 Dec. 11. Web. 6 Sept. 2015. http://www.articlemyriad.com/overview-reconstruction-era-american/
Citation style: MLA
Pages: 6
Sources: 10
Level: Undergraduate
U.S. History: Events in 1877
The year 1877 is considered one of the momentous years in the course of the American history. The year marked significant changes in the political and social trends, particularly after the war. The events that took place prior to this year brought the nation into a compelling transformation known as the “Reconstruction Era.” Details of the events that took place during the year 1877 will be discussed selectively to justify the marking of the year in American history with its significance.
The Electoral Commission (1877)
The presidential election that took place in 1876 brought the nation into a confusing result, forcing the Congress to declare dispute with the election result declared. To resolve the issue, the Electoral Commission was constructed. The temporary body created by the Congress was given an obligation to investigate the controversial 1876 US presidential election. During the 1876 presidential election, Rutherford Hayes and Samuel Tilden were in an electoral bout for presidency. The victory of Tilden was assumed since he won 184 electoral votes against Hayes with 165 votes (Hoogenboom 1995). However, the remaining 20 electoral votes were held dispute in four states, being the states of Florida, Louisiana, Oregon and South Carolina. The Congress were forced to create the Electoral Commission as allegations of fraud in the disputed states were surfacing and to address once and for all the constitutional crisis brought by the dispute. The Commission was consisted of fifteen congressmen and Supreme Court justices. The Commission were asked to cast vote for the deserving candidate to win the presidency and it resulted into 8-7 votes with favoring votes for Hayes, declaring him the winner. The 1876 election was regarded historical due to other points it gained throughout the history, including the first case of presidential candidate who won popular votes yet lose the election and where the Democratic party won the popular vote in the last 20 years prior to the election (Dirck 2007). The result does not received well by the Southern Democrats who cried fraudulence over the process conducted by the Commission and threatened rebellion against the administration. To pacify the threats, a certain deal was made about ending the reconstruction era that bothered the nation for a period of time particularly the Southern parties. However, the image of Rutherford was already tainted among them, often referring him as “Rutherfraud” (DeGregorio 1997)
Reconstruction Era of the United States (1877)
What was referred to as Reconstruction Era in the history of the United States falls into two period. The first period covered the entire events that transpired from 1865 to 1877 that led to Civil War. The second period pertains to the transformation of the Southern United States particularly with the state and society around 1863 to 1877. On the first of January 1963, President Lincoln issued the presidential proclamation of changing the civilian status of the slaves into free citizens. The federal decision created a domino effect from various sectors who were unprepared for such changes, leading to Civil War against the rebels of the executive branch, contesting the order. The order was also known as Emancipation Proclamation where it specifically freed slaves out of the ten states that were under the rebellion. The order freed some 4 million slaves in the American soil at the time (History.com 2015). While Lincoln initiated the order, Radical Republicans did not settle well to his moderate approach of giving privileges for the freed slaves as they have observed that the effect had worsen their status particularly with the treatment of society. Radical Republicans acted harshly by upgrading the rights of the freedmen by setting up a bureau that will take charge with the protection and exercise of the freedman’s legal rights. They were provided with livelihood, schools and churches. Under the administration of President Ulysses Grant, the protection for the African American were highly enforced, particularly suppressing the Klu Klux Klan movement. Prior to these protections, the former slaves experienced another turmoil regarding labor treatment imposed for them under the administration of President Andre Johnson when he passed the “black codes.” The provision had appointed power to the employers over the former slaves and other African Americans to control their behavior and labor practice. The code only lasted a year since critics of Johnson outraged and called for presidential reconstruction instead. This is when the Radical Republicans took over the policy making position and dismissed the participation of Confederates. While the beginning of the Reconstruction Era brought hope to million slaves, it was still considered as failure since the South, where the freedmen where relocated, was stricken with poverty due to scarcity of resources. Aside from this, white Southerners still practice racial discrimination against the freedmen. Several incidents of attempt to dominate the community of former slaves including the formation of Klu Klux Klan that aimed to restore white dominance among the states by enforcing violence and intimidation against them were reported and recorded in the Southern history.
While the Radicals were taking charge with bureaucratic works for the freedmen, the Congress was taking charge to reconstruct the Military system. The passed Reconstruction Act, as authored by Oregon Senator George Williams, defined new military tasks by grouping them into five military districts (Foner 2005). The military districts were Confederate states under the military control. The military districts were the following:
- Virginia. The First District. General John Schofield was in charge.
- Carolina, North and South. Second District. General Daniel Sickles was in charge.
- Alabama, Florida, and Georgia. Third District. Generals George Meade and John Pope were in charge.
- Arkansas and Mississippi. Fourth District. General Edward Ong was in charge.
- Texas and Louisiana. Fifth District. Generals Winfield Scott Hancock and Philip Sheridan were in charge.
The Reconstruction Era deployed some 20,000 troops, aiming to protect the African Americans' right to vote. Discrimination and oppression against the African Americans were heavy in these states, thus, the need for martial law implementation and suspension to represent in the Congress. The ten Confederate states were only readmitted to represent in the Congress from 1866 to 1870 after successful attempts of driving away Republican officials in the local governments (Smith 2011).
When African Americans became influential in the political scene, few educated African Americans were delegated as officeholders during the 1867 state constitutional conventions. They attained education even prior to Civil War with proper schooling. In Virginia, there were 25 African Americans employed in the office. In North Carolina, there were 13 employed. In South Carolina, there were 76 employed. In Georgia, there were 33 employed. In Florida, there were 18 employed. In Alabama, there were 16 employed. In Mississippi, there were 17 employed. In Louisiana, there were 44 employed. In Texas, there were 9 employed (Hahn 2005). While the number of the African American office employees constituted only a minute percent in the total office employees in the Confederate states, the proposition projected improvement in terms of labor code and African American recognition.
Nez Perce War (1877)
As the Reconstruction Era was coming to an end in 1877, the Nez Perce War was unfolding. This war was participated by some Native American tribes against the United States Army. The conflict between the two parties rooted when Treaty of 1863 was passed, ordering the members of Wallowa Band in Oregon to return to their homeland in the Lake Wallowa (University of Idaho, 2002). The treaty was not received well by the Wallowa band and other non-Christian bands. The conflict created by the treaty resulted to hostile encounters of the participating parties, initially with Nimiipuu and White Bird. The encounter initiated the Nez Perce War.
The term Nez Perce was impressed with meaning as “non-treaty Indians,” forming the Nez Perce Native American tribe including their allies such as Bald Head and Palouse (Josephy 1965). The war lasted for four months from June to October 1877. The tribe had engaged some 2,000 American soldiers during the battle. The fighting skills of the Nez Perce tribe was highly admired by historians since they were able to conduct with discipline despite the battle (Greene & Josephy 2001). The chronological events that transpired during the event were the following:
- Clearwater Battle on July 11 – 12, 1877: The Nimiipuu was reinforced when Indian warrior, Looking Glass along with his band, joined the battle.
- Big Hole Battle on August 9, 1877: The encounter on this location had Nimiipuu lost some 90 lives from their tribe. Majority of casualties were women and children.
- Cemas Meadows Battle on August 20, 1877: Nimiipuu's attack on stealing the mules of Howard's camp disadvantaged US Army in random encounters.
- Canyon Creek Battle on September 13, 1877: Nimiipuu's strength increased, while US Army had repelled as they could not keep up with Nimiipuu's attack.
Bear Paw Battle between September 3 to October 5, 1877: US Army Col. Nelson Miles were able to intercept Nimiipuu near the Canadian border. Seeing the severe suffering of his people, Chief Joseph of Nez Perce surrendered on October 5, 1877. He negotiated an arrangement as an agreement to conclude the three-month battle.
One of the agreements upon the conclusion of the battle was for Howard and Miles to allow Chief Joseph to return his tribe in their homeland in Idaho, however, as compensation to damage of the war they created, they were instead sent to Kansas by the US Army commanding general, William Sherman. Since the agreement did not materialize, some of Nimiipuu survivors escaped to Canada including White Bird. The remaining Nez Perce tribes were relocated to Oklahoma's Indian Country. These tribes were allowed to return to their homeland in Idaho upon receiving baptism to convert into Christianity in 1885. Chief Joseph, who returned to his original religious practice after returning to his homeland, was exiled in Washington and died in 1904 (University of Idaho, 2002).
These three momentous events made the year 1877 a marked period. The year contained transition, reconstruction, and reconciliation in political and social scenes, that eventually lead to various historical events as results of the end of Reconstruction Era and Nez Perce War, along with the constitutional changes that took place after the Electoral Commission's decision regarding presidency.
Works Cited
“Reconstruction.” History.com, 2015. Web. 6 Sept. 2015. http://www.history.com/topics/american- civil-war/reconstruction
DeGregorio, William. The Complete Book of US Presidents, 1997. New York: Gramercy. Print.
Dirck, Brian R. The Executive Branch of Federal Government: People, Process and Politics, 2007. California: ABC-CLIO, Inc. Print.
Foner, Eric. Forever Free: The Story of Emancipation and Reconstruction. 2005. Print.
Greene, Jerome A., & Josephy, Alvin M. Nerz Perce Summer, 1877: The US Army and the Nee-Mee- Poo Crisis. Montana Historical Society. Print.
Hahn, Steve. A Nation Under Our Feet. Belknap Press.
Hoogenboom, Ari. Rutherford B. Hayes: Warrior and President, 1995. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. Print.
Josephy, Alvin M. The Nez Perce Indians and the Opening of the Northwest, 1965. New Haven: Yale University Press. Print.
Smith, Nicole. “Overview of the Reconstruction Era in the American History.” Article Myriad, 7 Dec. 11. Web. 6 Sept. 2015. http://www.articlemyriad.com/overview-reconstruction-era-american/
No comments:
Post a Comment
Note: Only a member of this blog may post a comment.